When Barley and Wheat Meet Millet

321 archaeological sites in the forest and forest-steppe zones of Eastern Europe, spanning from the
Baltic to the Urals, which have been collected and studied in over a century of archaeobotanical
research. The spatiotemporal distribution of these remains was analysed using multivariate statistics,
unveiling intricate cultivation patterns influenced by both geoclimatic and historical factors. In the
timeline, millet-dominated agriculture was prevalent in Eastern Europe from approximately 900 BCE
to 150 CE, followed by an increase in barley production at around 250 CE, potentially associated
with western migrations. During the Migration Period (approximately 450 to 650 CE), barley-focused
agriculture peaked in the northern part of the region, while the forest-steppe regions continued to
exhibit millet-rich macroremains. Around 650 CE, wheat gained prominence in the steppe-bordered
regions, and rye production increased in the north. We have noticed a gradual rise in the proportion
of weed species over two millennia, leading to the growth of “mixed” cereal compositions. Our
analysis demonstrates the potential to discern trends in cereal production by combining data from
various research methods. However, data gaps hinder our understanding, underscoring the importance
of intensive sampling.